Misc Encyclopedia of "starting from scratch" in a primitive earth-like world

EARLY PALEOLITHIC: OLDOWAN LITHIC TECHNOLOGY

The earliest lithic tools are categorized as part of the Oldowan industry.

Oldowan stone tools were predominantly made from local stone materials, typically found in river beds. Flint/Chert was not necessary in this period, and in fact a majority of stone tools were made from lesser quality stones that fracture (e.g. quartzite, basalt, etc.) less predictably or are less sharp. Keep in mind depending on your area, flint could be a rare resource.

Consequently, the inability to precisely control lithic fractures (in part due to poor quality starting materials) meant that stone tools had to be made from pebbles/rocks that were already approximately the shape of the final tool. For instance, an axe-shaped river rock was used to make a hand-axe. Consequently, this also meant that making stone tools in the Oldowan period included a laborious search for the perfectly shaped rock for a certain tool. Furthermore, only a subset of rocks fracture according to planes. Additionally, the process was error prone and difficult to control.

It was rare to make more chips than necessary on Oldowan tools.



Formula: Lithic stone (many different stones can be used, usually a river stone) + hammerstone = flake + sharp stone + debris

Depending on the type of tool, either the flake or the core was used. "Choppers" (hand-axes) were likely fashioned from the large fragment. "Scrapers" were likely fashioned from the flakes.

Stone tools such as these were not particularly sharp. They were thick, pebble-sized, and have a lot of variation from tool-to-tool. Whether or not a sharp-edge formed was probably semi-random.

Despite being called "hand-axes", it probably wasn't appropriate to use such tools for heavy concussive purposes. Stone tools chip and shatter easily, especially lithic stone tools (used more for cutting things like skinning carcasses than hitting), and the lifespan of a lithic tool would be quite short if it was indeed used for whacking against trees. More likely -- ground stone ("harder" stone rather than "sharper" stone) was used for such heavy purposes, which I will discuss some other day. Takeaway point: hand-axe is for cutting (or gentle chopping), not hitting as hard as your can!

 

EARLY PALEOLITHIC: ACHEULEAN LITHIC TECHNOLOGY



The second tier of stone age lithic technology (after Oldowan) is Acheulean, which also corresponds to the Early Paleolithic period.

Under the Acheulean Industry, several advancements were made to to lithic technology. The first change was that early humans started to use larger and dedicated lithic cores to produce tools, implying that humans spent a lot more time and energy searching for the best materials to make stone tools. No longer did people just pick up any old rock from the river bed. Notably, this is the period during which we see many more flint and chert tools -- the classic preferred materials in the European stone age.

A typical Acheulean hand-axe was around 8 inches long (over double the size of Oldowan), and originated from a "lithic core" ~12 inches long. Many of these "lithic cores" were furthermore obtained from an even larger "flint nodule", which was potentially dug out from a flint mine (see prior post on distribution of flint) or other large rock source.

By focusing on higher quality stone, the production of tools could be much more precise and predictable.

Additionally, Acheulean flintnappers started using wood and bone "soft hammers", which allowed increased fine-control. Particularly, soft hammers were critical for thinning large lithic cores into a manageable shape. Acheulean techniques also led rise to the "tranchet flaking" method, which allowed for the sharpening and "retouching" of old stone tools that weren't possible in the Oldowan industries.

Acheulean stone tools were unquestionably sharper and larger than Oldowan tools, and they could be "repaired" a limited amount of times.

However, a sharper edge also meant more fragile (given that stone tools fracture easily). Consequently, Acheulean stone tools were generally more intended for cutting than hitting (e.g. hand axes for skinning a hide).

 

PALEOLITHIC STONE TOOLS

In the paleolithic era, stone tools are often classified by tier: Mode 1 (Oldowan), Mode 2 (Acheulean), Mode 3 (Mousterian), Mode 4 (Aurignacian), Mode 5 (Microlithic).

Despite the fact that they are tiered by complexity, not all the stone tools are precisely intercangeable. For instance, later mode tools were sharper and smaller, whereas earlier tools were blunter and larger. Consequently, it is rather important to describe the types of tools that were manufactured in each of these settings.

For simplicity's purposes, Olodwan (Mode 1) = chipped stone. Usage of higher quality materials like flint were not widespread, and the source materials for these tools are relatively widespread and could be found in river beds.

The chipped stone can be typified by the "Chopper" tool -- suitable for cutting, chopping, and scraping. This is the most primitive multipurpose stone tool form. However, it was not particularly sharp, rather small, could not be easily repaired, and had a high degree of inconsistency/variability with regards to its manufacture.

In Acheulean (Mode 2), the "Hand-axe" is the upgraded form of a "Chopper". Hand-axes are multipurpose tools that could be used for digging up roots, cutting/smashing killed animals, boring hides, etc. Acheulean tools are made from higher quality starting materials than Oldowan, and utilize a larger lithic core that could be quarried or mined. Acheulean tools are manufactured with greater predictability, and the shapes can be quite consistent. Additionally, Acheulean technology allowed the "retouching" of damaged stone tools, repairing them slightly.

At this point I will discuss more specialized stone tools. Regardless of the technology tier, the type of stone tools that can be produced can be classified by the size of the starting material. A "Core Tool" (that originates from the larger piece of knapping) includes Choppers, Cleavers, Picks, and Handaxes. A "Flake Tool" (that originates from the smaller piece) includes Bores, Points, and Scrapers. Finally, a "Blade Tool" (arises in Mode 4 Aurignacian tech) includes Blades and Burins.

Of these tools, "Choppers" and "Handaxes" are relatively multipurpose (with handaxes being capable of fulfilling most functions). However, these are not specialized tools, and consequently not as good as the specialized tool variants. Consequently, the game should account for this by applying a debuff when a multipurpose tool is used for a specialized purpose.

A Cleaver has a flat strike surface (is generally heavier), and ideal for butchering animals/chopping into bone marrow.

A Pick has a thick end (think trianglular prism), and was ideal for digging into the ground; a little like a shovel.

A Bore is used as an awl to poke holes in hide.

A Point is the generic term for anything sharpened to a point, like an arrowhead.

A Scraper is a tool used to scrape hides.

A Blade is a multipurpose cutting tool. Sharp.

A Burin is a tool that is great for engraving and working with wood/bone/antler.

 

RECIPE 22: Tin Ore (Cassiterite) Mine

Tin is an essential component for the production of bronze, however it is a rare mineral on Earth (25X less abundant than copper, and 1800X less abundant than iron). In fact, tin deposits were so rare that tin trade was a characteristic and critical feature of Bronze Age trading economy. Nations that controlled tin were powerful by nature (having access to bronze), and few nations had that access. Phoneticians were notable for trading tin all over the mediterranean. Tin was so rare that archaeologists have little evidence for how tin was mined/produced/smelted.



At Earth's surface, tin is present only as Tin Oxide (Casserite), which is a black and heavy ore. Unlike copper ore (green) or iron (red), tin is not particularly easy to identify. Very few tin mines were present in antiquity (some researchers have speculated that the amount of tin present in Cornish/other mines simply couldn't have produced enough tin for the entire bronze economy). It is speculated that much tin "mining" was done instead by "placer mining" (similar to panning for gold) in river beds.

 

Rebooting this project because I was recently inspired by Dr. Stone, which is airing this season!

Which also lead me to watch a little bit of History channel's Alone.

Migrating to a wiki platform for better organization, but will cross-post here.

http://humanlegacy.wikidot.com/

+ + +​

Introduction
The collapse of human civilization is bound to occur one day in the future.

This public project is a collection of articles relevant to rebuilding human civilization from scratch.

We assume a primitive post-apocalyptic environment hundreds to millions of years in Earth's future, with no remaining trace of human technology.

​

 

Human Legacy Project
The Human Legacy Project is a compendium of knowledge that would be helpful to restart civilization from scratch, in the event of an apocalyptic event.

Scenario
All articles in the project are written according to the following baseline assumptions:

• All human civilization, technology, and prior knowledge has been destroyed and is not salvageable.
• The post-apocalyptic event may occur at any point in the future, ranging from decades to millions of years.
• A small population of humans is available to repopulate the species.

This scenario is compatible with a number of fictional settings, and should be useful as a resource for writers and game designers looking to perform research on primitive civilization building.

How to Contribute
This project is open to the public. Anyone can edit this wiki.

We ask all contributors to adhere to the following guidelines:

• Cite references and include a bibliography for all information that is added.
• Maintain scientific and historic accuracy, as best as possible.
• Remain objective. Avoid injecting personal opinion or experiences. "Expert opinion" should be cited and quoted.

 

Short-Term Survival
Short-Term Survival is a survival situation that is anticipated to last from one to four days [4].

It is the most common survival situation in the 21st Century, and most modern resources prepare individuals to sustain themselves for a short period of time until a rescue team can arrive. However, the strategies for individual short-term survival are not always translatable to long-term wilderness survival, since there are different considerations and priorities for each situation.

Introduction
In the Human Legacy Project, the absence of established human civilization and technology means that a survivalist cannot depend on a third-party rescue team. Many modern survival manuals are optimized for a short-term survival situation and the presence of modern gear. In fact, some recommended short-term strategies can negatively impact long-term survival.

For instance, many short-term survivalists argue that it is better to fast than attempt to search for food, since inexperienced individuals can waste more calories hunting than they gain through food [1]. Humans can survive many weeks without food (as of 2019, the world record for fasting is 382 days) [2], meaning that food is the lowest priority in a short-term scenario. However, the continual loss of body weight is a negative spiral, and gradual starvation results in a poorer fitness and mental capacities. Eventually, the body is unable to sustain itself or function. Long-term inhabitants of the wilderness argue that maintenance of a steady-state body weight is a critical component of long-term survival strategy [3].

For the Human Legacy Project, short-term emergency skills are important to learn, despite these differences in overall strategy.

Terminology
Survivalism is the practice of skills related to self-sustenance in a hostile environment, typically in the setting of an emergency, accident, or disaster. A Survivalist is someone who is practices survivalism.

Survivalism is typically distinguished from Bushcraft. Survivalism typically focuses on handling an emergency situation for a short-term period. Bushcraft is a voluntary lifestyle choice that addresses the methods for living in the wilderness for the long-term [5]. With primitive technology, it is not possible for humans to thrive in the wilderness in all locations on the planet. Similarly, bushcraft requires specific preconditions and constraints about the land. In contrast, survivalism can be applied anywhere, regardless of the terrain.

The Boreal Wilderness Institute classifies survival situations by length:

• Short-Term: One to Four Days
• Medium-Term: Four to Forty Days
• Long-Term: Over Forty Days

In the modern era, over 99% of survival situations fall into the short-term category [4]. Consequently, many wilderness survival courses focus on short-term survival. 72-hour "Bug Out Bags" are available for purchase on the Internet, and military survival rations are often geared for the 72-hour period.

Principles
The Rule of Threes
The Rule of Threes for Wilderness Survival [6] is commonly cited by survivalists, and forms the basis for short-term survival strategy.

1. You can survive three minutes without air or in icy water.
2. You can survive three hours in a harsh environment (extreme heat or cold).
3. You can survive three days without drinkable water.
4. You can survive three weeks without food.

Consequently, in an emergency survival situation, priorities should be secured in this order.

Injuries are Fatal
In the modern era, falls are often cited as a top reason for morbidity and mortality in United States National Parks.

Bibliography
1. Peacock, P. (2014). Surviving by Not Eating - fasting with water. [online] Wildernessinnovation.com. Available at: https://wildernessinnovation.com/2014/09/05/surviving-not-eating-fasting-water/ [Accessed 2 Aug. 2019].
2. Wikipedia. (2019). Angus Barbieri's fast. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angus_Barbieri's_fast [Accessed 2 Aug. 2019].
3. Quiñonez, J. (2017). How Starvation Affects Long term Wilderness Survival. [online] Survival Skills Guide. Available at: https://survivalskills.guide/how-starvation-affects-long-term-wilderness-survival/ [Accessed 2 Aug. 2019].
4. Zawalsky, B. (2016). Breakdown of Survival Situations by Length. [online] Boreal Wilderness Institute. Available at: https://boreal.net/articles/survival-training/survival-situations.php [Accessed 1 Aug. 2019].
5. Durbin, L. (2013). What’s the difference between survival & bushcraft?. [online] Wildwood Bushcraft. Available at: https://www.lowimpact.org/whats-the-difference-between-survival-bushcraft/ [Accessed 3 Aug. 2019].
6. Wikipedia. (2019). Rule of threes (survival). [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_threes_(survival) [Accessed 1 Aug. 2019].

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I got kind of tired writing about this, and frankly survival skills isn't really my interest so I think I will move onto more technology related things.

 

Debris Hut


The Debris Hut is a form of self-heated Temporary Shelter that has been popularized in the contemporary era.

It is notable for its ability to provide warmth to the occupant without the use of fire or other modern materials. However, in exchange for increased insulation, it is highly cramped with limited space inside.

It also requires a large amount of materials and time to build.

History
The Debris Hut was popularized by the American naturalist, Tom Brown Jr., who derived the method from similar shelters built by Apache Native Americans [1].

Since then, it has propagated to the Boys Scouts of America, and is taught in numerous wilderness survival schools.

Principles
The human body generates heat, which ordinarily escapes rapidly into the environment. Self-heated temporary shelters take advantage of bodily heat and attempt to trap it indoors. This is achieved by limiting conduction and convention through the utilization of an excess of insulation. A shelter must also remain dry, as damp surfaces encourage heat loss. In modern terms, the objective of a debris hut is to construct a water-resistant and wind-resistant sleeping bag.

Each of the following components of a debris hut aid this objective:

1. Location: Like all shelters, the placement of the debris hut is critical, particularly to avoid draining water.
2. Debris Bed: A bedding of debris on the ground is important to minimize conduction and heat loss through the ground.
3. Minimal Interior Space: Many guides advise leaving only a single hand-worth of space in the interior, minimizing heat loss through convection.
4. Interior Insulation: Stuffing the interior with debris decreases heat loss through convection.
5. Thick Walls: A near-unlimited amount of debris can be piled on the outside, increasing insulation.
6. Steep Walls: Increasing the steepness of the debris helps shed water.
7. Door cover: Some designs include a door cover.

The amount of debris necessary is variable, depending on the weather. One source recommends having walls at least 1.2 meters (4 feet) thick in cold weather, although one arm's length (0.7 meters) (2.3 feet) is sufficient in warmer conditions [2] [4]. However, different kinds of debris have different insulating values.

If a debris hut is too cold, it is possible to simply pile more debris to make it warmer. Insulation is linearly related to the thickness of the material.

Debris huts have a minimal exterior heat signature. Some sources have claimed that mosquitoes cannot detect occupants inside of debris huts due to this property [3].

Advantages

• Fire is not necessary for warmth.
• No prerequisite technologies.

Disadvantages

• Almost no interior space.
• Requires an abundant amount of debris.
• Requires a substantial amount of time and effort to build.
• Not considered a long-term shelter.

Design
Location
The placement of debris hut follows general considerations for the construction of any Temporary Shelter.

In summary, the following points are important:

• Good drainage: Avoid areas that may pool or collect water. Elevated flat locations are ideal.
• At least 45 meters (50 yards) from any body of water: Safeguards against flooding.
• Avoid widowmakers: Widowmakers are trees that appear they may fall from gusts of wind.
• Environmentally Sheltered: Choose a location that is sheltered against high winds.
• Avoid game trails and other dangerous wildlife: Game trails are paths that predators frequently follow.
• Abundance of debris and wood: Important for Debris Huts, given the large amount of materials required.

Materials

• Ridge Pole: A long straight stick, not rotten, 7-13 cm (3-5 in) in diameter, a bit longer than a person's height with their arm outstretched.
• Interlocking Sticks: Two Y-shaped sticks, about waist height.
• Ribs: Lots of smaller sticks.
• Debris: Lots of dry debris, including leaves, pine needles, straw, etc.

Methods

Step 1: Construct a Debris Bed
After choosing a suitable location, construct a bed of debris.

Compressed, the debris bed should be at least 15 cm (six in) high [3].

This is important to avoid heat loss to the ground through convection.

Be sure that the debris bed is comfortable before proceeding.

Step 2: Establish the frame

Next, use interlocking Y-shaped sticks to form the backbone with the ridge pole.

It is important that these sticks are sturdy, strong, and not rotting, because these are the structural supports for the Debris Hut. With the large quantity of material on top, the underlying frame can carry a lot of weight. At the minimum, the structural frame should easily be able to support your own weight.

There are many variants of the Debris Hut where the Y-shaped sticks are substituted for another natural support, such as a tree trunk or large rock.

Some online guides suggest lashing the Y-sticks together using cordage [5].

Step 3: Trace out the interior boundaries
Lie down inside the frame and mark one hand's worth of clearance (15 cm or six in) around your body.

A common error in the construction of debris huts is to leave too much space or construct it too large. With too much space, air escapes, which defeats the ability of a debris hut to conserve body heat.

There should be only enough to space to roll from side to side inside the debris hut. Entering and exiting should be challenging.


Step 4: Add the ribs and cross-pieces
Lay sticks down the frame of the debris hut. It may be necessary to make adjustments to avoid sagging.

The ribs should be placed at a roughly forty-five degree angle. A higher angle supports the shedding of water.

The ribs should not stick up over the top of the ridge pole. Doing so will trap water at the top of the structure, and rainwater will drip into the interior.

Add cross-pieces to fill the gaps between the ribs, like a lattice.

Some guides recommend switching to wider fan-like branches as more material is added to help shed water.


Step 5: Build an entrance
Two common designs for a debris hut entrance include a Door Plug or Igloo Entrance.

An Igloo Entrance is an extended entryway that allows the piling of more debris in the vicinity of the entrance. This increases the amount of insulation at the exit, helps retain heat, and shields against wind. Since the debris hut is built on an elevated bed, the entryway is a slope. This causes an "igloo effect" where hot air is trapped in the elevated interior, whereas cold air sinks at the level of the entranceway [3].

A Door Plug is a collection of debris that is held together by any means possible. One method is the sandwich a pile of debris in between some vines or twigs. The occupant can pull the door closed behind them, effectively "plugging" the entrance to help retain heat.

Some articles online include designs for side-facing entrances.


Step 6: Pack debris
Add lots! And lots! The amount and thickness depends on how much insulation is required.

Many sources recommend a wall thickness between 0.6 to 1.2 meters (two to four feet).

Remember to pack debris in the interior before packing the exterior.

Some sources recommend dry debris over wet or living debris.

Adding large branches on the outside can help hold down the debris.

Executive Summary
In the Human Legacy Project, the reader is expected to begin with few starting materials. Protection against hypothermia is a top priority, and construction of a shelter is the fastest means to escape the environment.

In the absence of a natural shelter or the ability to craft fire, an insulating debris shelter can be constructed with no prerequisite technologies. However, the presence of wood and an abundance of natural debris (e.g. leaves, straw, grass) is necessary. Three to eight hours of time is required.

Bibliography
1. Erich. (2012). Building a Debris Hut. [online] TacticalIntelligence.net. Available at: http://tacticalintelligence.net/blog/building-a-debris-hut.htm [Accessed 3 Aug. 2019].
2. Forti, S. (2016). 7 Steps to Successfully Building a Debris Hut in the Wild. [online] RealWorldSurvivor.com. Available at: https://www.realworldsurvivor.com/2016/02/22/7-steps-debris-hut-building/ [Accessed 3 Aug. 2019].
3. Douglas, M. (2015). Debris Hut Survival Shelter Tutorial. [online] Maine Primitive Skills School. Available at: http://www.primitiveskills.com/earth-living/debris-hut-survival-shelter-tutorial/ [Accessed 3 Aug. 2019].
4. Brown, T. (1981). At Home In The Wilderness Part I: Shelter. [online] Mother Earth News, Issue #71. Available at: https://wildwoodsurvival.com/survival/shelter/men71/index.html [Accessed 3 Aug. 2019].
5. Stolper, S. (2016). How to Build a Debris Hut. [online] NatureOutside.com. Available at: https://www.natureoutside.com/how-to-build-a-debris-hut/ [Accessed 3 Aug. 2019].

 

I moved again to wikibooks: new place to put everything!

https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Primitive_Technology

As for the reason for the move? Well, I thought about the long term and figured that wikidot would probably die at the some point (the host site hasn't been updated since 2013 or 2014 or something), and also because wikibooks seems like a nice big place.

For wikibooks, I sort of adjusted the scope so that it's a little bit more anthropological and evidence-rich.

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Preface
Technological advancement is a defining feature of the human species. Since the third millennium B.C., an explosion of discoveries, inventions, and new knowledge has resulted in a highly complex technological tree. As new developments are made in the contemporary era, older skills become increasingly obsolete. Numerous indigenous, traditional, and "primitive" methods are on the verge of extinction.

This project aims to research and collect obsolete knowledge from the past.

The objective is to use a chronological approach to review advancements starting from the prehistoric period.

We utilize a mixture of anthropology, history, and experimental archaeology to develop this evidence-based encyclopedia. While the initial focus of this project is on primitive technologies, the ultimate (yet distant) goal is to eventually pursue the technology tree into the Medieval, Industrial, and Modern eras.

 

Here's a half-finished cordage article too @.@ this one I never finished on wikidot. I feel like I'm really bad at finishing stuff!

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Cordage

Cordage is the general term that refers to all materials (e.g. string, rope, yarn, twine) made from the twisting of fibers. Cordage is used as a tool to tie and bind materials, and it is a component in multiple crafts.

Cordage can have different properties depending on the fibers it is made from.

Cordage was used since prehistoric times and is a feature of most civilizations.[1] It is likely one of the earliest critical inventions of human history.

History
The usage of cordage dates back to prehistoric times. In the archaeological record, impressions of cordage on fired clay provide evidence of string-making technology dating back 28,000 years. The ancient Egyptians were the first to document the tools for rope-making process.[2]

The history of cordage from Egyptian times to about 1500 AD seems fairly speculative. From 1790, the history and technological advancements in European rope-making is well documented in the academic literature.[3]

Characteristics
Terminology

• Cordage is the generic form used to refer to all twisted fibers.
• String is a thin length of fibers twisted into a single strand.
• Twine is composed of two or more smaller strands twisted together.
• Yarn is a long continuous length of interlocked fibers.
• Thread is a type of yarn used for sewing.
• Rope is a strong material made from twisting multiple cords.

Properties
Cordage is a long and flexible material used for multiple purposes.

The following functional characteristics of cordage have been important during its technological evolution:

• Tensile strength
• Diameter
• Flexibility
• Elasticity
• Texture

As a general rule of thumb, thicker cordage has greater tensile strength than a thinner cord made of the equivalent material.

References
Bibliography
1. Wikipedia contributors. (2019). String (structure). Wikipedia. Retrieved August 3, 2019, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=String_(structure)&oldid=903333289
2. Wikipedia contributors. (2019). Rope. Wikipedia. Retrieved August 3, 2019, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rope&oldid=901519987
3. Cordage Institute. A Bibliography of Cordage and Cordage Making. Retrieved August 3, 2019, from http://www.ropecord.com/new/dl/biblliography.PDF

 

Dressing and Handling of Wild Game and Fish

I addressing this topic here because diet sits at the core of human development. Prehistoric human ancestors likely knew how to cut and transport meat -- whether from scavenged kills or fresh kills in the wilderness. Consequently, it is important to review the relevant topics in this area.

Modern Theory

Any form of perishable meat can be contaminated with harmful bacteria. Appropriate dressing, handling, and transport of raw meat is necessary for the safety of food.

One of the predominant risk factors is temperature. The range of temperatures between 40 °F (4.4 °C) and 140 °F (60 °C) is known as the "temperature danger zone" because this is the range that bacteria multiplies most rapidly. At temperatures below 40 °F (4.4 °C), bacteria growth is slowed but not killed. All forms of meat should be cooked to the proper internal temperature before consumption. Ground meats should be cooked to at least 165 °F (73.9 °C) and oven-roasted meats should be cooked to at least 325 °F (162.8 °C).

Multiple forms of bacteria, parasites, and bacteria spores can be found in different species of meat. Some species of bacteria spores can survive cooking and can be a risk in cooked meat items that are not properly chilled and stored.

Modern Dressage



References
https://extension.psu.edu/proper-field-dressing-and-handling-of-wild-game-and-fish